CONNECTIONS

BIODIVERSITY

Loss of Biodiversity
The biodiversity of an ecosystem is defined as the number of varieties of species and ecosystems on our earth. These environments consist of plants, animals and microorganisms, which breed, reproduce and explore freely. Biodiversity includes all living things across the various domains and kingdoms. This is what makes up the world, yet once again, human innovation is a direct threat. (Waddell, 2021) This creation of Genetically Modified Organisms signifies incredible growth for bioengineering methods; however, these products are a significant contributor to the loss of biodiversity. These products provide many risks, such as excessive crop growth, destruction of natural habitats and climate change. First and foremost, nearly every GM product is herbicide-resistant, which means farmers are using significantly higher herbicide rates on other plants to eliminate weeds. The usage increased by nearly 200% over the past 20 years. (CBAN, 2018) On organic/natural organisms, these herbicides heavily impact neighbouring plants as well as the consumer. A loss of biodiversity can mean threatened food supply, lack of natural medicines, reduction in tourism, and disrupted biogeochemical cycles. Furthermore, GM products can attack non-target organisms, which cause significant ramifications to native species.(WHO, 2015) Review the case study below for an example of this event.

Non-Target Organisms Case Study
In the past 20 years, monarch butterfly (Danaus plexippus) populations have decreased by a significant margin: 90%. As per the Center for Food Safety, "We are at risk of losing a symbolic backyard beauty that has been part of the childhood of every generation of [civilian]." Farmers utilized the introduction of GMOs to promote engineering growth in milkweeds. As a primary food source for monarch butterflies, there has been a significant decline in family Nymphalidae and genus Danaus. Given the rise in herbicide use, the host plant was traced with exceedingly high amounts of defoliants. To this day, these butterflies are threatened with extinction and have had the majority of their habitat wiped out. (Boyle, 2019)

"Agriculture is this ironic field that requires genetic diversity to persist, but also is always reducing this diversity down. That reduction has to do with our modern system, with technology and the fact that you need uniformity in the field to make industrial-scale agriculture happen."

Species/Structural Diversity
In turn, both species and structural diversity are affected. Ecosystems will continue to grow, however, in a monotonous fashion. If the rise of GM products continues as predicted, there will be many similar types of genetically engineered organisms. Ecosystems need species diversity to increase the productivity of an ecosystem and increase the supply of clean air and pest control; without it, an environment faces serious consequences (Wall, 2012) Furthermore, there will be an evident lack of structural diversity. Without a range of physical shapes and sizes, GM products will nearly eliminate the number of microhabitats within a population. These two factors further justify the negative impacts of making GM products mainstream. (Phillips, 2008)

GENETICS

Heredity

The idea of a genetically engineered and customized organism brings several questions to the mechanics behind heredity, mendelian genetics, mutations, genetic variability and gene transfer. Heredity is the passing of maternal/paternal traits to offspring in all living species. For genetically modified organisms, the engineered genes from the favourable organism are passed on. Gregor Mendel, the father of genetics, proposed "Mendel's Law of Heredity." In the context of Mendelian genetics, GMOs can vary between heterozygous and homozygous dominant. This is important because, during the reproductive stage, the engineered genetic coding will be passed on. (Holst-Jensen, 2012)

Mutations
Although these plants are considered much more powerful, there are often mutations in genetically modified organisms - some of which are more dangerous. The US National Library of Medicine study states how mutations in GM products are a potent threat to biosafety. Plant transformation is a complex process and can often result in unpredictable effects on the resulting phenotype. Small mutations in these species can disrupt gene sequences and affect parts of the plant phenotype that are valuable to humans. Latham et al. mention how the transformation process can introduce new mutations and impact the biosafety for consumers and allele frequency in successive generations. (Latham, 2006)

The Process
It is also critical to address the process of creating GMOs in the context of genetics. A study by Harvard University goes into depth about the process, identifying the identification, isolation and insertion of a trait. Genetic engineering is one of the most common concepts of study in biomedical investigation. After finding a need for a GM product and a list of chosen plants, it is critical to isolate the trait. This topic directly connects with DNA, as one is simply cutting and pasting genes. The human body has approximately 10 billion miles of DNA inside, making it challenging to identify and act upon that gene. Instead, scientists use a variety of comparative analyses to create a database of traits to optimize for. This process follows the principles of mainstream genetics, however, it is like nothing you have ever seen before. (Royalty Society, 2016)

Image from Bartholomew Brown

EVOLUTION

Throughout history, there have been several individuals who have contributed to evolution. To name a few, Charles Darwin, Alfred Russel Wallace and Georges-Louis Leclerc. Unfortunately, these contributions to evolution involved limited resources, and these individuals were forced to fight against what was thought to be correct. GMOs contrast the majority of these ideologies and propose a way to win the survival of the fittest. However, there are several downsides in the context of evolution.

Adaptations
Evolution is the basis of humanity, and GMOs are affecting it in several new ways. Concepts from this unit align with impacts of GMOs, including genetic variation, natural/artificial selection, selective pressures, contributors to science, Darwin's theory and genetic drift. Most primarily, GMOs have beneficial traits to adapt better, survive and reproduce. Although this is often considered from a consumer's perspective, genetically modified plants and animals are better prepared for a particular environment. This, however, eliminates the idea of natural selection. Natural selection is the process for organisms to pass on traits over time to successive generations. Although GM products will grow alongside native species, there is evident human input to the process. On a larger scale, GM products may conflict with evolution. In the aforementioned unit connections, uncontrollable growth directly affects its surroundings - naturally evolving species may be wiped out or genetically altered due to the preeminence of these creations. (Scoville, 2018) This exemplifies the influence of GM products on natural selection and adaptaion, as well as how endogenous species are being slowly eliminated.

Contamination/Loss
With regards to evolution, GMOs can propose new threats to contamination and economic loss. As per the International Journal of Food Contamination, hundreds of reports of food contamination have been rooted in genetic drift. Although GMO technology is incredibly advanced, genetic drift proposes new difficulties that the dominating manufacturers cannot control. (Raman, 2017)

ANIMAL SYSTEMS

Health Consequences

Most animals and all humans rely on organ systems to stay alive. Genetically Modified Organisms may provide more bang for the buck or less time spent to find food, however, they pose significant threats to human health. The Journal of Food Science and Technology study shows how diseases can develop via the consumed produce. Furthermore, there is a linear relationship between the increase in specific chronic diseases and new genetically engineered products in human diets. Courtesy of the National Center for Biotechnology Information, several consequences directly target humans and animals. (National Academy of Sciences, 2016)

1. Plants may have a higher amount of rotenone (a specific type of insecticide) that directly relates to Parkinson's disease. This is most commonly found in GE corn.


2. For individuals in the reproductive stage, the introduction of Bt proteins can enter the bloodstream and lead to GI tract disorders, be traced in an offspring, harm gut walls, and alleviate the digestive system's strength.


3. In children, GMOs have caused significant attacks on the liver and kidneys. These products are recognized in the rise of obesity and diabetes.


4. There are several effects of herbicides due to these herbicide-resistant crops, which increase the amounts of damage to bone marrow and levels of various chronic diseases.


5. Genetically modified organisms have been shown to cause gluten sensitivity, imbalanced gut bacteria and impaired digestion.


6. Glyphosate is the most common pesticide and is highly toxic to human cells. GMOs encourage the use of this product, which directly impacts native species.

Long/Short Term Impact
As demonstrated, there are long-term and short-term ramifications to human health. GE foods can be safe, however, several underlying effects are hardly visible for humans after consumption. For example, the American Cancer Society, GMOs were found to cause a significant amount of cancers - this is a long-term effect and will show a significant impact in the future. In addition, there are direct impacts on the digestive and circulatory systems, two of the most vital organ systems that allow consumption and blood flow. (Yeager, 2013)

Human Technology

PLANTS

Genetically Modified Organisms present both positive and negative impacts on plants. For example, it has been discovered that GE plants can boost the amount of photosynthesis - this has direct ties to the amount of clean air as well as the strength of the plant. In contrast, gene flow, cross-pollination, animals and reproduction are negatively impacted by these species.

The Positives
On a positive note, GM plants were shown to produce a 20% greater yield, with direct additions to the global food supply. Furthermore, by genetically modifying a plant, there are great chances to improve photosynthesis for more production of glucose and oxygen. Several strategies can boost the growth up to 40% greater, with a smaller population. These discoveries allow scientists to propose solutions in regards to air pollution, air supply and overpopulation. (Stebbins, 2019)

The Negatives
However, plants find several consequences to this creation. Gene flow is how genetically engineered crops transfer the coding to other native plants. This is one of the most significant factors for GM plants' growth over the years. The most common medium of gene flow is cross-pollination, especially when GM products are transferred through fields of endogenous plants. The powerful forces of winds can spread the engineered genes and allow mass reproduction. Animals who rely on plants for food can also face severe challenges. Fruits are a significant investment for the plant and are often consumed by animals. The animals who spread the products and the animals who consume the product itself will face damages towards their physical capabilities. (Reiban, 2011)

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